U.S. counterinsurgency operations in Cuba and the Philippines Essay Example for Free

U.S. counterinsurgency operations in Cuba and the Philippines Essay In January 2002, The United States Special Operation Commands, Pacific (SOCPAC) took on an arduous task of assisting the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) with a specific mission for ousting the terrorists forces of Al Qaida, Jemaah Islamiyah and the Abu Sayyaf Group(ASG) and to carry the humanitarian operations in the islands of Basilan which was considered as the most dangerous place. The United States Special Forces (SP) unit along with the specially equipped forces and scout rangers of the AFP formed the Light Reaction Company. This Light Reaction Company along with the SOCPAC were deployed at Basilan with the sole motive to reject the ASG sanctuary, undergo surveillance on the key positions, support the villagers, conduct regular training to boost the morale of the AFP and support the strike forces of AFP and assist in the civil affairs operations. This was the part of the Operation Enduring Freedom-Philippines (OEF-P). In this operation, 350 operating personal were deployed and other 750 were providing logistics support to the headquarters in Zamboanga on Mindanao. The main purpose of the Mission was to help AFP in curbing the stronghold of Abu Sayyaf and as a result, the declared members of the Abu Sayyaf group reduced to 80 from 700. Another project that took place was Operation Smiles, a program to give medical aid to the local civilians of Basilan where the intensive fighting was taking place. The result of this operation was the establishment of 14 Schools, seven clinics, three hospitals and more than 20 fresh wells. Fighting again resumed in 2005 and 2006 between the government forces and the Abu Sayyaf group who was aligned with the New People’s army. By the end of 2006, hundreds of guerillas and soldiers were killed, and NPA was left with 7,000 fighters whereas Abu Sayyaf with 2,000. United States took up a different approach in Cuba by interfering in their internal private affairs. When the United States felt threatened by the Cuban revolution in 1959 and rise of communism under Fidel Castro, they formed a special committee to launch an attack on Cuba. They faced the danger of the coercion of the communist parties in Cuba that they would unleash their communist movements in America. They formulated the plan to infuse the anti-regime spirit and overthrow the government. They made thirty different plans to over throw the government and disrupt their economy. Among these were included the use of American Green Berrets, destruction of their sugar crops and mining of harbors. To overcome the crises, Cuba began to establish the trade relationships with Soviet Union. On April 17, 1961, United States conducted air strikes across the island to eliminate the Cuban air force, and enabling the Brigade 2506 to have a complete control over the island much before their actual landing at the Bay of Pigs. This failed because the invasions were not conducted as planned and Fidel Castro even resisted an armed invasion of 1,500 CIA trained Cuban exiles at the Bay of Pigs. This was another excuse for America to increase their propaganda against the Cuban government. In 1962 Operation North wood, plan was initiated with the intention to use false flag as an excuse to attack Cuba. Every month since 1962 there was one plan or the other to destabilize the communist regime either in the form of publishing views against Castro, equiping militant opposition groups with armaments, helping them in establishing guerilla bases and preparing them for their military interventions in Cuba in October. Many of the plans were devised by the CIA with the sole purpose to assassinate Fidel Castro which included the use of hair removal powder to fall the Castros beard, a poisoned wetsuit, the exploding cigars and the placing of explosive seashells in Castros favorite places including the place where he used to go for diving. This project was originally decided to put into action in October 1962 with an open revolt and ultimately to the overthrow the Communist regime. This action was planned when the Cuba was at the peak of the Cuban Missile crisis due to the Soviet Unions’s presence of Soviet missiles in Cuba, and could have led to the nuclear war between Soviet Union and United States. Therefore on 30th October the operation was suspended, but they had already deployed three of ten six-man sabotage teams in Cuba. One team infact was successful in blowing Cuban industrial facility on 8th November, 1962. This whole Cuban Project was known as Operation Mongoose. United States broke all the diplomatic relations with Cuba and imposed sanctions against it in 1962. The relationship between the two nations improved in 2000-2001 but again deteriorated when George W Bush came to power. Bush termed Cuba as an outpost of tyranny and his undersecretary to the U. S. State Department John R. Bolton levied accusations against Cuba of keeping and maintaing bioweapons program. Bolton even declared that Cuban leader had visited US enemy countries like Libya, Iran and Syria. Cuba was also declared as a State Sponsor of Terror by the United States department of State but Cuban government in turn accuses America for sponsoring terrorism against Cuba. Thus American Government again started their activities towards overthrowing the Cuban government and through the media propagated against the government to the extent that the opposition parties, supporting United States in Havana started displaying messages on a scrolling â€Å"electronic billboard† and to counter these Cuban government constructed large number of poles, carrying black flags with white stars, to obstruct these messages. On 12th September, 2006, the United States formed five interagency working groups to monitor Cuba and to carry their policies. These groups were set up quitely in War like rooms. According to the U. S. officials, three of these created groups; diplomatic actions; strategic communications and democratic promotion are headed by the State Department. One more group which coordinated humanitarian aid to Cuba is run by the Commerce Department, and the fifth group tackles migration issues, is being run jointly by the National Security Council and the Department of Homeland Security. These prcocess is being undertaken to restore democracy. Thus the counter insurgency operations with Philippines was to help the Philippine regime to crush the terrorists activities of the Al Qaida, Jemaah Islamiyah and the Abu Sayyaf Group(ASF) whereas the United States Policy towards Cuba was to eliminate the Communist regime by supporting the opposition parties and to counter the Russia’s missiles in Cuba. United States Counter Insurgency operations in Philippines were over and all successful, and the reasons behind these successful efforts were the comprehensive operations, adopting strategy of attacking the enemys line of attacks and disrupting their alliances and this was achieved by strengthening the Philippine government institutions and local security so that the daily lives of the people can move on smoothly. The measures were also undertaken for civic development to provide necessary amenities to its population. These operations being carried out in Basilan led to the ousting of the ASG from the island simply because they lost the support of the population and lost the combat operations as well as bases. But, there were certain strategic errors that led to again the emergence of ASG who â€Å"Lived to fight another day with the sole help from the JI and MILF. The ASG is again rising on the southern islands of Jolo and Tawi Tawi where Forces of the United States are not allowed to give assistance to AFP. This situation arises due to the certain strategic errors by the United States. The first strategic error was inability of the OEF-P, American leaders to fruitfully understand their own forces. They could not understand the basic traits of SF in an arena of employment and their capabilities to take out the combat advisory mission during unconventional warfare. Instead of fully understanding the situation, combatant commander and the Secretary of Defense imposed restrictions on SF soldiers. Over and above, the restrictions were also imposed on these SF advisers to operate at battalion level with their AFP counterparts but were not disallowed to operate at lower tactical echelons. U. S. leaders at the highest levels also could not able to comprehend fully the unconventional warfare. This led to the second strategic error and that is over-reliance on technical reconnaissance assets. The Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and the Navys P3 Orion began to be used for locating the ASG and the hostages on Basilan. These they used again for protection minimizing the risks to U. S. personnel. These though reduced the patrolling in remote areas, but this kind of surveillance was unconventional, and the forces on the ground were not allowed to use these reconnaissance assets. The third reason cited because of the prohibition of the U. S. leaders to assist the SF units because the negotiations were going on between the AFP and MILF, so forces were removed from MILF and because AFP was desperate to take the advice and assistance from U. S. Military, AFP troops were shifted from MILF-controlled areas. This led to the creation of de facto ASG sanctuaries giving boost to the ASG and MILF strong relationship. Many people staying in the area are also the members of these two organizations. (Tzu Sun, May-June 2004). The United States strategy in Cuba did not get desired results. The CIA wrote an internal report that blamed the internal incompetence on failure. The administration thought that the troops could retreat to mountains and conduct guerrilla war if they lost in open battle. But they did not realize that the troops could not reach the mountains by foot. The second reason was that the troops were deployed in swampland, where they were easily surrounded. The third biggest fault was their thinking that Cubans would be great full to them to give them liberation from Fidel Castro and would join in the battle, but the Americans could not gain the support of the population. It was basically due to the agencys weak positions on the ground in Cuba. CIA’s witnessed the mass support of Castro and those who were against the Castro were rounded and arrested by him. (Bay of Pigs invasion, encyclopedia) Looking at these failures and strategies the soldiers in order to win the war against terrorism first of all should analyze the ground situation where the war is to be fought, take the local population into confidence, never underestimate the enemies, and use the reconnaissance assets at the appropriate situation and at the appropriate moment. WORKS CITED 1. Bay of Pigs Invasion All Experts: Encyclopedia Retrieved April 5, 2007 from the World Wide Web: http://en. allexperts. com/e/b/ba/bay_of_pigs_invasion. htm 2. Maxwell S. David (May-June 2004) Operation Enduring Freedom-Philippines: What Would Sun Tzu Say? The U. S. Army Professional Writing Collection Retrieved April 5, 2007 from the World Wide Web: http://www. army. mil/professionalwriting/volumes/volume2/june_2004/6_04_3. html

Walkers Crisps Analysis | SWOT and PESTEL

Walkers Crisps Analysis | SWOT and PESTEL Jump to: Marketing Mix Analysis of Walkers | SWOT Analysis of Walkers Crisps | Product Lifecycle of Walkers Crisps | Importance of PESTEL Analysis | PESTEL Analysis of Walkers Crisps Introduction PepsiCo is a world leader in convenient snacks, foods and beverages with revenue of more than $43 billion and over 198,000 employees. PepsiCo took social and environment responsibility and provide hygienic products to their customers. They are committed to delivering sustainable growth and build trust with people. They have unique value because they bring people of different culture and diverse brands in different culture. To understand different culture is the advantage. They are integrated with suppliers, consumer, retail customer and communities. PepsiCo identify needs of customers and put right thing in right market place. Employing over 48,000 people and bringing in over $11 billion of business, Frito-Lay invigorates PepsiCos portfolio of products with plenty of good food and good fun. Frito Lay producing snacks on earth starting with simple, farm grown ingredients. They put their effort to minimize environmental factors and improving their snacks. Frito Lay provide best testy chips with less fats because they used natural ingredients, no using artificial flavor, color, and other ingredients that are associated with hygienic. Walkers Crisps History Henry walker (1880s) was a butcher as professionally. He belonged to a town Midlands near to the Leicester. In 1945 meat was scarce than Henry began cooking slices of potato. In 1954 first flavor crisps were introduced with ingredient cheese and onion. After that Henry Walker convert into crisps brand Walkers. Now Walkers has been introduced different brands in crisps and very famous in consumers who like snacks with different taste. Walkers Crisps are made from a good old British spuds. British land condition and temperature are suitable for potatoes production. Rain and mud are perfect for potatoes growing. Introduction of task In this task identify a type of growth for Walkers and requirement two marketing strategies and justify how Walkers can achieve competitive advantages and long term growth to use these strategies. Market Market refers to the group of consumers or organizations that is interested in the product, has resources to purchase the product, and is permitted by law and other regulations to acquire the product. Marketing Marketing is a management process responsible for identifying, anticipating and satisfying customer requirements profitably. Growth for Walkers Henry Walkers took step in crisps world and introduced different brands in market. Walkers created natural flavors and ingredients like sun seed oil (naturally lower in saturates) and capture potential market. According to survey conducted for marketing magazine by TNS that Walkers is biggest brand in UK. It sales was 505 million. One of the most important elements of growth is how to give leverage to their customer and which type of bond you build with your customers. Companies first step to build strong relation with customers. It is a good year for Walkers Crisps, which made 3rd place out of 100 grocery brands. With a 5.2% growth in brand value now Walkers brand worth 424.5 million pounds and previous figure was 403.6 million pounds. Walkers Crisps Marketing Mix Analysis The 5ps Products Walkers have introduced variety of products and produced new products and can see their products on market Walkers French fries Walkers lite Walkers sensations Walkers square Walkers quavers Walkers max Walkers monster munch Walkers cheese onion Walkers grilled bacon Walkers ham cheese Walkers saltsn shake Walkers success base on these products. Price In UK the price of Walkers Crisps around 30 p to 2.50 pound. In some places or stores their prices vary according to market. We see their price differ in hospitals, health club, and social club as compare to regular market. Place Places where the crisps are sold like stores, mini market, super market, retail stores or public places. Personnel Now over 5,200 employees are working in 15 locations. Only good quality potatoes are selected for making crisps. Every individual are attached with machine that peels the potatoes other in charge of slicing machine, frying, seal of approval, weighting. All work are done under supervision of management and finally loaded on truck. It takes approximately 20 min to full a tuck with crisps. Promotion Promotion is the part of marketing. Walkers promote crisps through media like television; newspapers etc. promotion is the key element of strategy to attract customers. In this era without promotion company can not be succeed because customer did not aware about brand without advertising. Main promotion of crisps is television and internet because its target market is child and young people and those who like salty things. Walkers Crisps SWOT Analysis (S)trengths Own potatoes production Sun seed oil (saturated fat) Natural ingredients. Provide range of taste in crisps Has taken steps to reduce carbon footprint. Biggest brand according to TNS. 3rd place out of 100 grocery brand. Good quality Lower priced products. Strong brands (W)eaknesses Create new product with high expenses People like healthy eating. (O)pportunities Go multinational Update technology Outturn every other company (T)hreats employees could go on strike high competition forcing people life style customer needs government influence potential entrance Walkers Crisps Product Life Cycle Now Walkers Crisps is in its maturity position because it is a biggest UK brand but when product get high position than its sales graph decline after maturity. Marketers develop new products. Walkers went to maturity after competition started its sales decline because competitors had introduced better quality crisps in low price in market. But it was no end of Walkers, it create new flavors and taste and push right button at right time. Marketing strategies for Walkers Walkers can adapt two strategies to achieve their objectives market development market penetration Market development strategies Every one is familiar with the Walkers brand. Walkers has strong brand in UK and captured 100% crisps market. They have proved their sales and good promotion. Walkers have established a very strong, compatible, reliable, qualitative brand. Walkers need to current products in new market because it is strong weakness that they dont focuses on new market. Other hand new market has potential like Asian market. Market penetration Walkers are working in UK, it has established its brand in current market but after maturity product naturally decline because new competitors enter in current market and provide resistance to the current market leader. At this situation R D department innovate new products t achieve competitive advantages. Walkers will try to come up with even more great flavored crisps. Justification for Walkers Intensive growth: Walker should adapt intensive growth to maximize its profit. Market penetration strategy Encourage new customer to buy more through advertising. Attract competitor customers to own products by new taste and style in current products Attract new users to tell them that its for you and essential for you. Market development strategy Expend new market where crisps like but few competitors Have additional distribution channel both including direct or indirect Sell new locations Above mention two strategies market development market penetration must be adapt to achieve long term objectives. Only few companies operating in Europe, Asia, Africa and others. It means that market have potential. Task 2 Introduction of task In this task discuss PESTEL analysis for Walkers. Assess the impact of technological change and globalization for the companys market planning in the next three years. What is a PESTEL analysis? PESTEL is the abbreviation of: P: Political E: Economic S: Sociological T: Technological L: Legal E: Environmental Many are factors that influence in macro environment of any organization. These factors effect on decision of managers of the organizations. For example, change in Tax, new laws, geographic factors, demographic factors (income change, style change, fashion change etc.), change in government policy are the factors that influence on organization. PESTEL analysis help the decision maker to analysis these factors and make solid decision. Example PESTEL Analysis: Political e.g. the pound, international trade, taxation policy Economic e.g. interest rates, exchange rates, national income, inflation, unemployment, Stock Market Social e.g. ageing population, attitudes to work, income distribution Technological e.g. innovation, new product development, rate of technological obsolescence Environmental e.g. global warming, environmental issues Legal e.g. competition law, health and safety, employment law Before making decision, it is necessary to predict micro and macro environment factors. Micro factors influence on the organization internal environment whereas macro factors influence on externally. Organization can not affect on these factors, nor do these factors directly influence on profitability of an organization. But through these factors, organization can minimize weakness and maximize strengths internally because strength and weakness affect organization internally while threats opportunity affects externally. PESTEL analysis is the useful tool to understand the broad picture of the environment in which an organization is operating. This is also tells about risk that are associated with market. Using PESTEL analysis: Internal environment is nor more complex as compare to external environment because to identify competitive change in landscape. So it is needs to undertake PESTEL analysis in regular base and for managers, using PESTEL analysis must be prepared to look all around them. Walkers Crisps PESTEL Analysis Now using PESTEL analysis of Walkers in UK: (P)olitical: These refer to government policy that may be change such as degree of invention in the economy. Identify in which environment you operate including tax policy, employment laws, trade policy, tariff, and political stability. If we analysis UK political system which is stable and perfect. National and international investors invest in UK. Because it is best place where numerous visitors and students are came. Political decision impacts on many areas in business environment. May be tax policy discourage investors and investors can switch off or any other political disability. In UK include face a big problem a recession. Walkers also face this problem. (E)conomics: Economic factors include interest rate, taxation, economic growth, inflation, exchange rates etc. High interest rates affect investor decision because investors borrow from bank to invest in his business but he will pay high amount to the bank. Inflation can affect, labors and employees demand high rates and they will purchase raw material in high cost. High national income growth may boost demand for firms products We are discussing the new market for Walkers to develop their market or launching new product in current market. (S)ociological: Change in social trends can impact on demand. Social factor is important. In UK population has been aging. This factor is caused increase in cost of organization. Staff is spent long time in organization that cause in increase salary and other benefits and retirement employees get benefit in the form of pension. In sociological environment culture values and norms directly affects on organization. Beside this others factor like health, population growth rate, career, security safety, global warming factors influence on organization. some countries very conscious on health issues and Walkers focus on this issue and has implemented clean environment plan. (T)echnological: Technological change impacts on business. New businesses create new products services and replace old technology. Innovation brings improvement in business and business take competitive advantage and capture new market and customers. Before online transition, customer was paid cash but now we can purchase every thing through online. Online shopping, bar coding, and other improvement in technology bring satisfaction both customers organization. Business can expand through new technology and make quick decision financially. It is necessary to Walkers to update new technology but technology change should not cause health and other related issues. (E)nvironmental: If we discuss environment it means we focus all environment factors. Now global warming is the biggest issue. This factor get high important among industries all focus on this issue and trying to minimize this factors. Firms are creating environmental friend products. It is necessary to Walkers to introduce such products which provide protection to the environment. (L)egal: It is related to legal environment in which firms operate. In UK, many legal changes that have been affected firms behavior. UK government has revised wages plan. This change has been impacted on firms cost. This may impact employment, resources, import/export, taxation etc. A Walker is UK Company so change in legal policy may not affect on it. Impact of Technological change: In modern ear technological has got great important. Every day new invention is going and organization updating their technologies. In past FORDISM change create great impact on all world and Fordism concept was is the combination of mass production to produce sustained economic growth and widespread material advancement. During this period, the system of organization of production and consumption has, perhaps, undergone a second transformation. Which when mature promises a second burst of economic growth. Now distance shrink and communication become fast and world become smaller. Internet has got great importance in this era and business are attached with business. E business has got significant importance in developed countries and developing countries are going to E. business. Most of the organizations are adapting produces and models that will helpful in future. Business making strategies for developing their strength and minimize weakness. Conclusion Recommendation: Walkers have very good market in UK, providing their customers good crispy products having twelve brands of snacks and crisps. They have captured forty three percent of UK market; have very good marketing strategy like having a former England football team captain as Walkers brand ambassador. But they have very potential growth opportunities which will need to be availed by having improved marketing strategy and addressing the hidden markets to penetrate in those areas, and also try to attract new customers into market, also the customers of their competitors. Also they need to keep updating on their system and technologies both for information sharing, marketing and product preparation to have improved quality of products and achieve the organizational goals and objectives.

The History Of Incidental Advertising Exposure Psychology Essay

The History Of Incidental Advertising Exposure Psychology Essay Following the suggestion, the effects of incidental advertising will be examined in terms of implicit memories (cognitive responses), emotions and attitudes (affective responses) and consideration set (behavioural responses). The endogenous variables consist of factors that, as consumer traits, affect the whole advertising response process. Among various factors, involvement and cognitive style were two principal psychological variables that influence consumers incidental ad processing, while gender was considered an important demographic variable. Comparing to the meta-analytic model, we choose to introduce two new variables that were never been tested in the context of incidental advertising: gender and cognitive style. III.2. Incidental advertising exposure Ferraro, Chartrand and Fitzsimons (2005) define incidental exposure as an automatic processing of visual brand information while conscious attention is directed elsewhere. Vanhuele et al. (2005) talked about focal versus non-focal attention in the case of visual perception. Focal vision is restricted to 1,5 to 5 degrees from the current point of focus. To define it, Shapiro (1999) suggests that while a person spotlights conscious attention on a primary task, other information that is not attended to can be processed. This nonconscious, incidental exposure often occurs without explicit memory for advertisement, product, or marketing stimuli and can affect persuasion. Scholars call incidental advertising by preattentive advertising (Droulers, 2004, Yoo, 2005, Adams, 2007). This preattentive processing can be distinguished from attentive processing in individuals lack of awareness of the stimuli, deficit of a speci ¬Ã‚ c goal for the process, inability to control the process, and att ention resources not required for the process. More speci ¬Ã‚ cally, preattentive processing occurs when an individual is preconscious exposed to stimulus in his peripheral  ¬Ã‚ eld of vision (e.g., banner advertisements) while focusing his attention on a primary task (e.g., reading an article on the web) (Ruy and al, 2006). In the field of advertising Shapiro, McInnis and Heckler (1997) were the first to propose the incidental exposure paradigm where they stipulate that subjects are directed to focus their attention on primary task, thus reducing the resources accessible to process secondary information bordering the primary information. In most cases, the secondary information is located to the left or the right of the primary information and is described by its distance (in degrees) from the primary information (parafoveal is 1.5-5 degrees from the attended information, peripheral is greater than 5 degrees) (Janiszewski, 1988). Attentional resources available for processing the secondary information are limited, so secondary information cannot be explicitly recognised-memory traces for this information are unlikely to be strong enough to be restored during a direct search for memory. When reading a newspaper, subjects are inable to recognise having previously seen the ads, Janiszewski (1988) has shown , however that this exposure can boost a consumers liking for the ads and brands. Some marketing studies have investigated conditions that facilitate processing of secondary information (Janiszewski, 1993), the effect this processing has on the comprehension of focally attended material (Janiszewski, 1990), and why this processing affects ad attitudes (Janiszewski, 1993, Shapiro and McInnis, 1992). Prior research has attributed incidental advertising exposure effects to perceptual fluency arising from a feature analysis that occurs during exposure (Janiszewski, 1993; Shapiro et al., 1997). It is necessary to review the process by which preattentive processing may facilitate individuals responses. Two underlying mechanisms have been suggested: feature and semantic analysis. Both analysis mechanisms during preattentive processing will be briefly discussed: Feature analysis: Perceptual fluency asserts that when exposure leads to a memory trace for the perceptual features of the stimulus (e.g., shape and brightness), the features of the stimulus are more easily processed on a subsequent occasion. Without explicit memory for having just seen the stimulus, this ease in processing is misattributed as an increase in familiarity and/or preference for the stimulus (Bornstein, 1989). Perceptual fluency may be ascertained as the ease of processing the perceptual features of a stimulus (Jacoby and Kelley, 1987). Prior exposure is thought to create a feature based representation of the stimulus in memory, with the result that processing of the stimulus on subsequent encounters is facilitated and experienced as subjective ease. Shapiro, McInnis and Heckler (1997) indicate that the effects of incidental ad exposure on stimulus-based judgements (attitude judgements made in the presence of an ad or brand) are due at feature analysis that occurs during processing (Janiszewski, 1993). This processing allows secondary information to subsequently be perceived more easily and hence thought to be more familiar, evaluated more highly. When a person builds a mental representation of a distinguishing item, any ensuing processing takes place faster and, in many situations, lets the messages give the impression more appealing and accurate than they would be if they were crucial or perturbed to process (Reber and Schwarz, 1999). Furthermore, Bornstein and DAgostino (1994) construed the likeability of more readily accessible information conceding to a cognitive perceptual fluency/misattribution model, whereas Winkielman and Cacioppo (2001) suggest a hedonistic fluency model that ascertains constructing smoothly positive affective responses toward fluently processed stimuli. Referring to hedonistic fluency, gracious and affirmative emotional responses happen in consequence of the fact that accustomed stimuli frequently signify a harmless situation, successful. Recognition generates good feelings and comprehensible interpretation attends to positive mood. Janiszewski (1993) further leads the hemispheric approach to the branch of incidental advertising exposure and discerns that abonded verbal messages are more persuasive when they emerge on the right side of the chief area, but they convince inferior to visual cues if they are located on the left. Rendering to Janiszewski (1993) explanations of secondary messages are actuated chiefly by feature analysis, which contains the recognition and processing of the perceptual features of the stimulus in the subconscious mind (Shapiro, 1999). Therefore, when both test and visual stimuli appears to the left of focal point, viewers brains naturally accredit more capacity to treat the visual cues, which commences in higher acquaintance and likeability for the visual messages during ensuing confrontations. However McQuarrie and Mick (2003) found that incidentally exposed with ads figures produce more favourable attitudes and improved memory, whereas Clark and Brock(1994) declare no significant effects of images in ensuing processed ad warnings, along with greater attitude alterations after the exposure to peripheral verbal warnings (Acar, 2007). Semantic analysis: Although perceptual fluency relies on the encoding of feature information during exposure, an analogous process may occur if incidental ad exposure involves the processing of semantic information (Shapiro, 1997). A study by Whittlesea (1993) shows that fluency effects can instead beyond instances of perceptual processing by demonstrating that semantic processing can lead to feelings of conceptual (vs. perceptual) fluency. Whittlesea (1993) suggests that conceptual fluency will affect any judgement regarding a stimulus that relies on conceptually based processes, such as decisions of semantic relatedness. It was mentioned previously that perceptual enhancement may be used as a criterion for determining inclusion in a consideration set. The predominant theory accounting for this facilitation effect suggests that contextual scene information activates a schema for the theme or gist of a scene prior to object identification. The activated schema in turn creates expectancies about what objects are likely to be present. These expectations facilitate object identification (Shapiro, 1997). Di pace et al. (1991) found incidental semantic priming effects after 200milliseconds but not after 2,000 milliseconds. This supported their notion that automatic, non intentional semantic processing of parafoveal information is very short lived (Shapiro, McInnis, Heckler, 1997). In his research, Shapiro (1999) concludes that ad information can undergo a semantic analysis during incidental exposure. Advertised products can more easily take advantage of this analysis when they are depicted in a consistent scene. When advertised products are depicted in this fashion, incidental ad exposure leads to conceptual fluency effects, exerting unconscious ad influence during consideration set formation. When a product is depicted by itself, unconscious ad influences rely on a feature analysis that occurs during exposure. This analysi s creates perceptual fluency effects. The results of experiments in Shapiros (1999) study showed that subjects in the context condition had greater levels of unconscious ad influence and those in the no context condition. This demonstrated that semantic relatedness between the product and other contextual ad information affects differentially the likelihood that the products name would be activated in memory, and, thus, the likelihood that the advertised product would be included in consideration set. This suggests that semantic processing of contextual ad information is what accounts for the context facilitations effects. In our work, we refer to one of the major theories that explain the effects of incidental advertising which is the theory of Zajonc (1968) called  «mere exposure and subconscious processing ». In fact, Zajonc (1968) defines the mere exposure effect as the observation that « mere repeated exposure of individual to a stimulus is a sufficient condition for the improvement of his attitude toward it ». By mere exposure is meant a condition which just makes the given stimulus attainable to the individuals perception. It arises when repeated or single exposure to a stimulus, even in the absence of acquaintance, results in the formation of a positive affective reaction to the stimulus (Zajonc, 1968). In another side, Janiszewski (1993) defines mere exposure to a brand name or product package as the process that encourages a consumer to have a more favourable attitude toward the brand, even when the consumer cannot recollect the basic exposure. This theory is interesting for our study as Zajonc (1968) found that as number of exposure increased, so too did the favourable evaluations. Bornstein, Leone and Galley (1987) have approved these effects when participants are aware as well as not of the presence of stimuli. Further, Ye and Raaij (1997) suggested another definition of mere exposure as they claim that the mere-exposure effect in the absence of awareness represents implicit memory. Mere exposure is the formation of a positive affective reaction to repeated or single exposure to a stimulus, even in the absence of awareness. Bronstein (1989) reveals that research on the influence of repeated stimulus exposures has demonstrated that preferences can be formed without an accompanying awareness of the preference formation process. Thus, there was a positive affective reaction to the previously presented stimuli (as assessed by their preference judgements) in spite of the fact that these stimuli had not been perceived consciou sly. Another major theory that explains the effects of incidental advertising is the theory of hemispheric processing styles. In reality, many a myth has advanced around the brains asymmetry. The left cerebral hemisphere is supposed to be the calculatedly logical, verbal and governing half of the brain, while the right is the utopian side, emotional, spatially aware but suppressed (McCrone, 2000). Recording to this theory, the human visual system is organized as stimuli located within the individuals field of foveal vision, roughly 1.5 degrees to the left or right of the current field of focus are initially sent to the right hemisphere for processing, and stimuli placed to the right hemisphere for altering, and stimuli placed to the current field of focus are originally sent to the left hemisphere. This theory suggests that summing information to support verbal claims in an advertisement may influence the subconscious processing of the claims. Janiszewski (1990) affirms that processing st yle refers to the procedure or process each hemisphere uses when attacking to achieve a task. Hemispheric resource theory predicts that the availability of resources to form a memory trace of the outputs of a feature analysis may be sensitive to an activation created by the feature analysis its self. To apprehend the effects of incidental exposure to advertising, Janiszewski (1990) recommends the cooperative interaction model which is based on two hypotheses that affect directly to the problems of a dual strategy processing system. The first is that the brain is reciprocal, parallel processor-each hemisphere has its own independent bank of resources and each hemisphere is able of involving concurrently in multiple operations (Janiszewski, 1990).The second assumptions that the hemispheres collaborate cooperatively (Allen, 1983).The assumptions of the cooperative interaction model can be applied to anticipate how nonattended material might intercede with the apprehension of an unattended verbal messages (Janiszewski, 1990).The model is based on capacity theories of attention ( Broadbent 1971; Kahneman, 1973) as well as on general models of information processing, in which motivation, competence and opportunity factors affecting message processing are synthesized (MacInnis and Jawor ski 1990). A key belief underlying these theories and models is that the attentional faculty (or processing capacity) that is accessible to a consumer at a distinct point in time is limited, and that the part that is designated to the stimulus studied is a function of both exogenous (opportunity) and endogenous factors (motivation and ability). The autonomy versus cognition mediation controversy has come to an impasse and has been surpassed by the rise of perceptual fluency as a popular account of the mere exposure effect. Consistently, Wang et al. (2002) found that placing a brand name to the right of attended pictorial information should send it to the less activated left hemisphere, where it will receive a greater degree of subconscious processing than if sent to the right hemisphere. The possibility that placement influences evaluation of a peripherally placed stimulus stems from the hypothesis that the hemispheres have different processing styles. The differential competency of the left and right hemisphere for forming a mental representation of a stimulus during a preattentive processing has a direct implication for our understanding of one potential benefit from manipulating the location of the incidental ads. Thats why we adopt this theory. In fact, referring to the works of Janiszewski (1988, 1993, and 1999) we suppose that ads were more liked when placed in the left, as opposed to the right, visual field because this draft encouraged the viewer to use the holistic processing resources of the right hemisphere to initially. This theory is very ancient, many researchers adopted it and even neuroscientists have supported it. Neuroscientists affirmed, in fact, the distinction between the processing that occurs in the right hemisphere and left hemisphere. In this study we stipulate that incidental ads placed in the left were more liked. III.3. Implicit memory One of the important cognitive responses are memories. A large number of studies have studied memory for advertisement. Yoo (2005) revealed that prior literature in memory research suggests that when consumers are exposed to an advertisement, multiple representations of the advertisement are encoded in memory. In this study, we give a great importance in studying the memory. In fact, to understand how unconscious advertising affects consumer preference, it is first necessary to understand something about how consumers think. But previously marketing studies examining memory for advertisements have relied approximately wholly on examining effects contingent on explicit memory retrieval. In psychology, memory is an organisms ability to store, retain, and recall information. Kronlund, Whittlesea and Yoon (2001) define memory as the commander of all acquired human behaviour, containing speech, conceptual apprehension, skilled activities, social interactions, and consumer preferences. In another side, neuroscientists define memory as the retention of learned information, the acquisition, storage and retrieval of information. To achieve a true understanding of any aspect of human behaviour, it is therefore essential to have an effective theory of memory. In fact, extant literature offers strong evidence that product judgement and brand choice decisions are often influenced by information retrieved from memory (Alba and Hutchinson, and Lynch, 1992). One type of memory that emerges from an exposure event is explicit memory (Yoo, 2005). At the time of exposure, a depiction of the information is encoded in memory and is correlated with a spatio-temporal context that attaches the information to the exposure incident. This memory depiction is attributed to as explicit memory, as known as episodic memory. Explicit memory is characterised by a persons conscious recall of the event and replies what he or she remembers about the event (Lee, 2002). Its also, characterized by a respondents conscious recollection of the preceding exposure. Thus measures of explicit memory make direct reference to the past exposure, and suspects are interrogated to demonstrate what they can remember about the prior event (Yoo, 2007). In fact, Bertrand and Girardi (2007) reveal that explicit memory codifies information on autobiographical events, moreover knowledge of facts. Its creation builds upon cognitive processes of the evaluation, conflicting and assum ing type. Implicit memory has an unintentional and impulsive attribute, and its formation and recall are not entirely dependent on the aptitude of having or attaining knowledge of cognitive processes (Lee, 2002). Cooper and Schacter (1992) defined implicit memory as nonintentional, nonconscious retrieval of previously acquired information and is demonstrated by enhanced performance on tests that do not require conscious recollection of the past. Explicit memory: on the other hand, requires intentional, conscious recollection of the past. The difference between implicit and explicit memory in terms of nonconscious and conscious retrospection is enigmatic because these states of consciousness loss accepted defining criteria. However, the term implicit memory was formulated by Graf and Schacter (1985), with attributing to the phenomenon of remembering without awareness (Lee, 2001). Implicit memory is analyzed to be revealed by relief in tasks that use memory whereas explicit memory is affirmed by straight testing memory (Jacoby, 1991). This memory is unallied of cognitive resource, acts constantly and inevitably whether we are paying a lot or a little attention or even no attention at all, and i s able of attaching emotional meaning to anything that it perceives (Heath, 2007). Our interest to study those memories comes from the fact that Shapiro, McInnis and Heckler (1997) advice that the presence of unconscious processing would be indicated by two measures: (1) implicit memory for the object brand names (2) no manifestation of explicit memory of the target ad (Yoo, 2005). Berry and Dienes (1993) affirm that in the case of incidental advertising, contextual knowledge is acquired through implicit attaining processes which concede complicated information about the stimulus environment to be without intention or awareness. They supplementary propose that incidentally acquired contextual knowledge forms a highly robust, instance based and implicit memory for context. The favour of implicit learning is that permits more information to be acquired than is possible through consciously linked channels. The capital advantage of implicit learning is that it may allow cognitive systems to memorize more information about stimuli than can be processed through consciously controlled channels (Lewicki et al., 1988). Jacoby and Dallas (1981) define the facility with which a person recognise the physical characteristics of a stimulus as perceptual fluency and is identified to be enhanced through preceding exposures. Especially, empirical proof from implicit memory research arrays that prior exposure to a target of ten benefits task performances such as lexical decision, word completion and anagram solving that involves the identification of the perceptual features of the target (Lee and Labroo, 2002). They reported that conceptual fluency eases consideration-set membership and memory based-choice as the result of extended accessibility of the brand in memory (Lee, 2002, Nedungadi, 1990, Shapiro, McInnis and Heckler, 1997) and they lead to the apprehending of the processing fluency model by showing that conceptual fluency influence judgements, too. Enhanced performance has been examined even when respondents are not aware of their having been exposed to the information earlier. Enhanced performance as the termination of preceding exposure recommends that people have memory of the exposure event, even though they may not consciously remember it. This enhancement reflects implicit memory of the event and is often mentioned to as priming. According to the cue accessibility hypothesis, an emotion may effect ones evaluations of ad stimuli because materials stored in memory that are conforming that emotion state will be more available, and consequently more likely to come to mind then they would at another time. Current findings in the mere exposure literature show that perceptual fluency is positively valenced, thus peoples assessment of an object grows as it becomes perceptually more fluent. Extended literature has displayed that the level of attention in encoding does not affect implicit memory but actively influences explicit memory. Schacter (1987) check out numerous alternative theoretical clarifications of such dissociations. One explanation, the activation view, holds that implicit memory performance rests on concepts that are briefly activated in memory due to the antecedent exposure (Yoo, 2007). One of the theories conducted in the field of neuroscience is the competence hemispheric theory. This theory recommends that memory traces are essential to bring the order in which material is presented. The right hemisphere has a more accurate performance of sequentially presented events because it does not commonly essay to reconfigure information as does the left hemisphere (Janiszewski, 1990). The left hemisphere sounds more able to process written or verbal ads, where as the right part of the brain triumph at visual ads. Janiszewski (1990) support Friedman and Polsons matching activation hypothesis and suggests that the greater activation of the right (left) hemisphere during the processing of attended pictorial(verbal) information should improve processing of supplementary material represented within the left(right) hemisphere provided that the material in opposing hemisphere can be treated by that hemisphere. During preattentive processing, if individuals bank only on perceptual fluency (feature analysis), their responses should be independant to the advertisement message, if indeed the individuals are knowledgeable only of features (e.g. size, color) in print advertising. However, if semantic analysis is possible, cognitive responses may implicitly embody the advertisement message, such as a brand name or impressive message cues, even though individuals do not explicitly remember them. Sine this research predicted that semantic analysis is also struggled during preattentive processing, it is anticipated that individuals have implicit memories of print advertisement message as a result of preattentive processing. Processing a print advertisement in a preattentive way will notify the brand delineated within the advertisement and thus construct an implicit memory trace for the brand, even though an individuals explicit memories for of the advertisement will be at levels no greater than thos e awaited by chance (Raman and Leckenby, 1998). Based on the above discussion and the results of anterior studies, the first hypothesis is suggested: Hypothesis 1. Incidental processed advertising is more likely to generate implicit memory than that expected by chance. III.4. Emotional responses Until now, there is no scientific and precise definition of the term emotion. In colloquial language, the term is used to refer to feelings and moods and also refers to the way these are expressed both in behaviour and bodily answers (Kandel; Schwartz and Jess ell, 2000). The Longman Dictionary definition of emotion is strong feeling (e.g. anger, fear, joy) usually incorporating physiological change (1984). Further, according to the complete Oxford English Dictionary, in a psychological classification the term emotion refers to a mental feeling or affection (e.g.: of pleasure or pain, desire or aversion, surprise, hope or fear, etc.) as distinguished from cognitive or volitional states or consciousness also abstr feeling as distinguished from the other classes of mental phenomena (OED, 1994 version). Far from the traditional approach to the study, the cognition accentuates information processing of view that has generally excluded emotion. In contrast, the recent emergence of cogniti ve neuroscience as an inspiration for understanding human cognition has stressed its interaction with emotion. An understanding of human cognition requires the consideration of emotion. Research in neuroscience has resulted in a definition that is distinct from feeling. In contemporary neurological research, emotions are unconscious processes, occurring in the inner and most primitive parts of the brain. Damasio (2003) have written that emotions play out in the theatre of the body so by contrast feelings play out in the theatre of the body. To understand the effects of incidental advertising on emotion we refer to the works of neuroscientists. In fact, decision neuroscience offers the commitment of deepening our understanding of emotion and decision making in a number of ways. Neuroscientists like Damasio and Le Doux have shed a great deal of light on the critical roles that emotion plays in the brain (Damasio, 1994; Le Doux, 1996). Le Doux (2002) claims that emotion can be defined as the process by which the brain determines or computes the value of stimulus. Other aspects of emotion than duplicate from this computation (Meyer-Dinkgrà ¤fe, 2007). In his book, Descartes Error, Damasio declares that the French philosopher may have blow when he came up with his famous dictum, I think, therefore I am. Had Descartes understood the central role that emotions play in the workings of the m ind, he may well have written, I feel, therefore I am (Plessis, 2005). Damasio (1994) can be trusted with initiating modern thinking about how emotions are processed. He uses the concept of a limbic system in the mammalian brain, a construct developed by MacLean (1952) to represent the original mammalian brain, which lies beneath the more recently developed neo-cortex. He shows that activity in the proto-self always anticipated activity in core consciousness. This therefore means that emotions and feelings are always formed pre-cognitively (Heath, 2007). The role of emotion in mental processes is a matter of fervent reflection, where Damasio (1994) argues for strong, but not unique, role for emotion within an exhibited nervous system in general. In particular, the research reviewed above confirms that ads victoriously appealing to the emotions are better remember than their cognitive cousins, although very little is known about the mechanisms supporting the formation of the emotional memories and their effects on consumer choices (Palessman, 2005). It is so important to differentiate between the affective responses toward the stimulus and the global feelings. In this context, emotion represents specific feeling states at the time of incidental exposure. This goes with the definition of Batra and Holbrook (1987) who have distinguished emotional reactions from subcategories of affective responses toward the advertisement. We have also to distinguish emotion from moods. Different to moods, emotions are more stimulus particular (Cohen and Areni, 1991) and emotions may fluctuate highly in their intensity level. Thus, emotions may impact the effectiveness of print ads differently than do moods (Mherabian and Russell, 1974). As there is a delay between the incidental advertising exposure and subsequent brand choice, memory processes ought to be important in determining the effectiveness of particular kinds of advertising. We will examine in the experimental part the critical link between emotion and memory and look how this argues strongly for a dynamic understanding of the way emotion works as we process advertising. The findings of Percy (2003) suggest that in addition to the words and visual images, we also store the emotions that are present at the time so when we recall that event, the emotions associated with it are also recalled whether we are conscious or unconscious of those feelings. Memory in particular, has been studied in terms of its relationship to affect by a number of researchers (Batra and Holbrook, 1987). Hall et al. (2006) stipulate that emotionally arousing the scenes are better remembered than neutral one so emotion has an impact of the memory formation. Events associated with emotions were found to be more memorable. Canli et al. (2000) have found that amygdala activation reflects moment-to-moment subjective emotional experience that this activation enhances memory in relation to the emotional experience and that this activation enhances memory in relation to emotional intensity of experience. They discover also that memory for emotional stimuli and experiences varied the sexes; women seem recalling emotional autobiographical events than men, produce memory with greater emotional intensity in response to cues. Always referring to neuroscience, it has been known for some time that the amygdala is a key brain region for the formation of emotional memories. Cognitive neuroscientists have begun recently to illuminate the psychological and neural mechanisms underlying emotional holding of past events (Percy, 2003; Plessis, 2005). Emotion-memory interactions occur at several stages of information processing. By adopting the perspective of neuroscientists, we struggle to forward our understanding of the link emotion and memory. LaBar and Cabeza (2006) reported that emotion has authoritative influences on learning and memory that comprise multiple brain systems engaged in at different stages of information processing. Further witness of the link between emotion and memory was provided by Ashby et al. (1999). They found that positive affect of individuals facilitates the reinforcement of long term memory as it systematically influences performance on many tasks; their new neuropsychological theory postulate that accounts for many of these effects by assuming that positive affect is associated with increased brain dopamine levels. For Jacoby (1991), recognition memory is treated as dual process that includes recollection (a conscious, controlled process) and familiarity (an unconscious, automatic process). The dual process model stipulates that, for recognition, recollection acts as a discrete state and familiarity can be vi

Is Abortion Wrong or is it Right? :: abortion argumentative persuasive argument

Abortion is defined as: "the termination of pregnancy and expulsion of an embryo or of a fetus that is incapable of survival." However, if only the debate over the abortion issue was as simple as the definition provided above. Much like every aspect of human life, a statement is neither right nor wrong, but simply left open for interpretation. There is no black and white in life, only gray areas. Some issues tend to provide us more gray areas than others. Abortion is a prime example of that. Those who refute abortion claim that it is the murder of a helpless baby who has not yet had the chance to live and function as a human being. However, the debate opposite it is just as fervent: it is a woman's right to choose what happens to her body, and if she decides that she is not capable of bringing a child into this world, than she shouldn't be forced to out of nature. Where do we draw the line between humane and inhumane, necessitated death and murder? When does a woman's right over her internal reproductive organs become that of the government's? Is abortion wrong or is it right? Are rape, incest,and potential fatality to the mother exceptions when abortion is "okay"? Are there truly any at all? So many questions are raised by such a fervent debate, that we must look at both sides of the issue to better understand it in a general, but yet thorough approach. As expected, there are many people that are opposed to abortion. These people are better referred to as "pro-life advocates", or essentially, they advocate the life of the baby over the woman's right to choose. Groups such as Human Life International (HLI), The Christian Coalition, and many others support the right of human life. There are several reasons why people who are pro-life do not support abortion. A main argument is that one is killing an unborn baby, murdering an unsuspecting life, in their decision to have an abortion. They are trying to "play God" by killing someone. However, they also feel that abortion is a dangerous procedure, and puts the mother at

Boundaries...What For? :: Argumentative Science Technology Papers

Boundaries...What For? There seems to be no boundaries when it comes to scientific advancement. Scientists are struggling to come up with new and exciting procedures that are supposed to make our lives better. In the process, I think that they are getting out of hand. The advancement of science and technology today has brought up some very interesting and controversial issues. Nowadays, it seems that many scientists are on a mission to create the perfect human being, but in the process are breaking a lot of ethical boundaries. Do scientists know when enough is simply enough?, that is the real question. Through the use of such scientific and technological advancements, its amazing at just what scientists can do with the information. Often times they aren't thinking in terms of the world but in terms of them selves. Which on of them can discover the next biggest thing in science and technology, which can find that cure. It's all a game that is not played fair. There is a lot of craziness going on in the sciences, and with that comes consequences. Take Dr. Frankenstein for instance. In the article Frankenstein by Mary Shelly, she created a character that defied all the scientific and technological boundaries that were around in those days. It was against the law to work with dead bodies, especially for the purposes that he was going to use them for; which was to select the best parts forthe creature he was going to bring to life. He set out to create a "super-human being" out of inatimate objects, and he was successful, but in the end did pay a price. He spent two grueling years that consisted of long days and sleepless nights, for the sole purpose of creating life out of nothing. "For this I deprived myself of rest and health, but now I had finished, the beauty of the dream vanished, and the breathless horror and disgust filled my heart" (Shelly 234). Dr. Frankenstein went way over the line, and tried to play the creator, and in the end got what he deserved, a monster. He abhorred Frankenstein so much, that he chose to alienate him from the world. Which was really unfair to the monster, considering he was created by the sweat of Dr. Frankenstein's brow. Sometimes all that scientific information can get you into trouble. If Dr. Frankenstein had not gone ahead and pursued the role of playing God, he wouldn't have created such an ugly mon ster in his eyes.

Julia Serano, Whipping Girl Book Review

I found this book as disturbing but yet inspiring as well. This book is about a transsexual male to female. Transsexual is a person who has undergone a sex change operation whose sexual identification is entirely with the opposite sex. I could say that the book is disturbing because as I go through words and sentences, images keep showing up in my head. He was discriminated because of his change of sex and his behavior (girly boy). Being discriminated didn't let him to keep being all sad and sorrow. He stopped himself for being let down by people around him. He really is a brave man for writing the book. In this book, he writes about his experience and his feelings. I could not imagine if I was he. I could not imagine what does it feels like to be in his shoe. After reading the book, I was inspired by him. I think that people need to stop judging and stop discriminating. Everyone either transsexual or normal, we need to be treated the same way. Transsexuals are human too. They have feelings and thoughts. They could be hurt just like the normal people. Normal people don't have the rights to bully just because they think that they are more superior to people like them and try to make them feel like they are the outsiders and make them feel inferior. I did some research and found this video on YouTube. The video is about a transsexual woman, Samantha Lauzon. I think he is the first transsexual ever who has to courage to finally speak out about he life. On the video Samantha Lauzon said that he didn't understand his body and thoughts and Samantha Lauzon didn't know what he was doing. As a child he got bullied and attempted suicide. But finally he realized that he was wrong and he finally realizes the need to change in order for him to be happy. And it is true that as time goes by, it gets better. All the things that happened are really sick and sad. People need to know about them and how they feel. Its people’s job to try to understand transsexuals either from male to female or female to male. It is their job to educate themselves. Ending your life is never the answer. Suicide is the permanent answer or solution to a temporary problem. No matter who we are and no matter what we have accumulated and accomplished and what the position are we in our lives, one thing that we need to know and is certain; you will die and only God knows when. In other words, suicide is really a bad way to solve a problem. One thing that people need to know is; we need to be realistic and true to ourselves. There will always be people who judge us for one thing or another. We are rich or poor or tall or short or fat or thin. What matters is our own self-image. How we see ourselves is what matters no matter what gender you are. To keep a healthy outlook and know that no matter what anyone says you were in fact meant to be here on this earth right now right here just the way you are. Trans, Gay,? Bi or anything. What makes you different makes you special believe that and pass it on the other people.

Patient Teaching Essay

Introduction: I have chosen breastfeeding as my teaching topic for this assignment. The specific clientà ¨le will be the new mother at between 2 and 7 days postpartum, newly discharged from hospital. As a community health nurse working with children and young families, I do initial postpartum visits at home. Breastfeeding is a very complex skill, natural, yet sometimes difficult to do. The client is often overwhelmed with information received in hospital, so sessions must be kept short, and made easy to understand. The area in which I work is multicultural. There is often a language barrier which further complicates teaching and learning. Finding a teachable moment is easy (London, p. 95). New mothers are eager for help in providing the best for their babies. Mothers whose babies refuse to latch onto the breast or who have an incorrect latch, may sometimes become very tense and stressed. It is important to remain calm and supportive during teaching. The client must be educated, not simply taught new skills (Rankin, p. 73). The newly acquired information will allow her to make her own decisions and to be the head of her own health care team. Assessment: I have been working with postpartum women for the past 6 years, and have 3 children of my own. I am able to use my own personal experiences with breastfeeding, my last having stopped only 2 years ago. I work well with my co-workers, I know that I cannot do it alone (London, p.51). We help each other every step of the way and have a good back-up system available in the community. These include lactation consultants, breastfeeding clinics, doctors, social workers and community agencies. The learner and her family are at the head of the team (London, p.47). They are usually very motivated to learn and ultimately want what is best for the baby. It is easier to form relationships with the client at home (London, p. 63). The environment is non-threatening to the learner and teacher. I can also learn a lot about the client by observing the home. I have had many clients tell me they were breastfeeding exclusively who had half empty bottles of formula on the kitchen counter. The assessment process begins on the telephone before the visit. All new mothers are contacted when they arrive home. All are offered a home visit, some refuse. By help of a detailed questionnaire, we know the problems to focus on before the visit. This is very helpful as we can be better prepared with the necessary tools. Many patients are â€Å"red flag† patients (Rankin, p. 160). Some speak very little English, have financial problems, are on welfare, or are single mothers. Culture and religion can influence teaching (London, p.296). It is impossible to generalize about one culture, so we must be careful to dig deeper when presented with a situation which may be affected by one’s background. The area I work in is multicultural. The women speak many languages and I often need to have a family member translate the teaching. This is sometimes quite challenging as I am not always sure that what is being translated is actually what I am saying! I try not to let my own beliefs get in the way of my patient care. I may not always agree with the decisions of others but always stay focused on the desired outcome. Some clients would prefer to breastfeed and others would prefer to bottle feed but are being influenced by family members. Support from family members generally improves the outcome (Stalling, p.163). The client will have an easier time adjusting to breastfeeding and will breastfeed for a longer period of time with family support. We need to make adjustments in our teaching based on each individuals views. (London, p. 303). We should never make assumptions about anything. Self-efficacy is a very important factor in learning to breastfeed. The learner who thinks she can do it, will be more successful. My department organizes a group that meets at the community center once a week. New mothers have a chance to meet each other and learn about breastfeeding. Using these role-models sometimes helps a woman with low self-efficacy learn to breastfeed (London, p.311). When I walk into a home, I can often tell within the first 10 minutes whether I will have to make a follow-up visit. At a typical visit I assess the baby and mother, help with breastfeeding if necessary and provide the mother with helpful information she will need in the first few months of the baby’s life. A typical visit lasts 1-2 hours. I usually provide printed material on the common breastfeeding problems to my clients. On the website WWW.Medela.com, there is very helpful information on breastfeeding in several languages. I use this site often to print out information on latching, sore nipples and engorgement. The information on the site is generally well written and edited. The vocabulary is easy enough to understand by most women. It is grammatically correct. There are no difficult or very technical terms. The subject in this paper is a mother of two who did not breastfeed her first child. She speaks English and works as a clerk in a drugstore. She has a university degree, so can easily understand information at the 12th grade level. Planning: The general goal of this teaching is for the client to be able to breastfeed in the proper manner and to understand the benefits of breastfeeding in order to prolong breastfeeding for as long as possible. The following are the specific objectives for this clientà ¨le. At the end of the session: The client will state at least 5 benefits of breastfeeding vs bottle feeding. The client will demonstrate 3 different breastfeeding positions one time each. The client will describe the treatments for engorgement and sore nipples. The client will list 3 resources for further information after the visit. The client will recognize and state 3 factors which indicate the baby is receiving sufficient milk from breastfeeding. Teaching tools used will be demonstration, discussion, and hand-outs. It is important to prioritize learning needs. There are some facts which are very interesting but which are not necessary for the client to know. (Rankin, p. 191 and 197). The breastfeeding mother does not need to know the physiology of the breast, but she does need to understand the relationship between frequent feedings and increased milk production. Content outline: Discussion of the benefits of breastfeeding. Discussion of the factors indicating that the baby is receiving sufficient milk. Observation of the client breastfeeding using 3 different positions. Demonstration of proper breastfeeding technique for each position as needed. Discussion of breast engorgement and sore nipples and their management. Discussion of resources for further information about breastfeeding and the assess the need for a follow-up visit. * The teaching is mostly done by discussion and demonstration. This is a good way to get continuous feedback from the client. It is also a good way to ensure that all the important material is not forgotten. Practice makes perfect. Adult learners need to be involved in the teaching (Rankin, p. 196) and want to apply what they learn right away. This is especially important with breastfeeding, as the new mother must be able to master it within a very short time. It is not always necessary to cover all the information with each client. Some are too overwhelmed with information already; others may already have the knowledge base and simply need help with latching. Implementation: I generally start teaching about breastfeeding immediately after having evaluated the client. I begin by discussion of the benefits of breastfeeding and the factors which indicate that the baby is receiving enough milk. Many women do not believe that they have enough milk and worry about the need to offer a supplement. It is important to explain this to them. If they do offer a supplement, their own milk supply may be reduced. Then, I assist the client at putting the baby to the breast using different positions as needed. I sometimes use a dummy breast to show the client the correct angle to use while feeding to ensure a proper latch. Visual aids sometimes help to make it seem more real. When that has been mastered, I continue with a discussion of the two most common problems found in the first weeks of breastfeeding, sore nipples and engorgement. I provide the client with written material on proper latching technique, sore nipple management and engorgement. Since these problems sometimes occur after a few days or weeks, it is helpful for the client to have this information in writing. I also provide an information sheet on the resources the client can use if she should need further help after the visit. I generally make a follow-up call one to three days after the visit and a follow-up visit as necessary. I sometimes refer the clients to the company Medela’s website, www.medela.com. This site provides helpful information on breastfeeding and the common associated problems. The computer is only a tool, however. It provides information, not education (London, p. 246). I remain available to my clients by telephone or by email at all times. Recording transcribed: (T=teacher, L=client) T: Did you breastfeed with your first child? L: No. I tried for about 3 days but gave up due to the pain. T: Did you receive any help? L: No. But it was less important to me then. I was ok with bottle feeding. T: Do you want to breastfeed Joshua? L: Yes. I will be taking a year off of work and would like to breastfeed him as long as possible. Many of my friends have had babies in the past years and all are breastfeeding. They make it look so easy. I decided to try harder this time. T: Joshua is 3 days old. How have you been feeding him? L: I tried to put him at the breast right after birth but he was too sleepy, and so was I. The first day he had a few bottles. Yesterday, I tried for the first time. I think it went ok but my nipples are very sore. I would like to learn how to breastfeed properly. T: Well, we can discuss a few things now and I can show you the proper technique for a few different positions when he wakes up. L: OK T: First of all, why do you want to breastfeed? L: Everyone is telling me that it is the best thing for my baby. T: They are right, but what do you think? L: I want to do what’s best for Joshua. T: Breast milk is definitely the best for babies. One of the best things about breastfeeding is that the milk is always ready. You don’t have any bottles to warm up or prepare, especially at 2:00 in the morning when you’re exhausted. Because it is available right away, you don’t have to make the baby wait. This will make it easier to calm him before he gets too agitated. It is also a great time to bond with the baby and will make Joshua feel more secure. Breast milk is the best thing for your baby. Do you know what colostrum is? L: Yes. I have been reading up on breastfeeding since I found out I was pregnant again. It is the yellow liquid that comes out before the milk comes in. I know that it helps to prevent jaundice. T: Yes that is true. It acts as a mild laxative to encourage the baby to pass his first stools of meconium. It can also help to prevent ear infections and allergies. It is very rich in nutrients and allergies. Did Julia have jaundice? L: No, she didn’t. T: Do you know of other benefits of breastfeeding? L: I know that breast milk is the perfect formula for babies with the exact right nutrients that they need. It keeps babies from becoming overweight. I also know that it can help me lose the baby fat that much quicker. T: That’s true. It can also save you money. The average cost of formula for 1year is about $1800, and that doesn’t include the bottles and other supplies. Breastfeeding requires you to eat about an extra 500 calories per day. This should cost, by comparison about $300 for the year. L: With all the expenses of a new baby, we can use that money for many other things. T: That’s for sure. L: Can breastfeeding keep me from getting pregnant again? T: No. It is not a sure form of contraception. Although it is relatively effective in the first 6 months if you breastfeed exclusively. Some women ovulate as early as 6 weeks postpartum even when breastfeeding. L: Good to know. T: Do you know how to tell if the baby is receiving enough milk? L: He will gain weight. T: Yes. That’s a very good sign in the long run. There are other things as well. He should have at least 3 urines today since he is 3 days old. Then, you should see one more each day until the sixth day. That means that on the 4th day, he should have at least 4, on the 5th day at least 5 and from the 6th day onwards, at least 6 per day. How many has he had today. L: So far he had 1 at 2:00 and another at 7:00. I don’t think that’s a problem. T: Good. We would also expect to see a few stools everyday. They should gradually change from the black meconium stools, to brown and then to yellow. Many breastfed babies have a stool with every feed, but some have only 1 or 2 per day. Both are normal. L: He has one almost every time he feeds. T: That’s great. He should also be satisfied between feeds. That means he would feed every 1 to 3 hours in the first few weeks and have some period in between when he sleeps or remains calm. You told me that he feeds about every 2.5 hours and usually sleeps in between, so it sounds like he is right on target. A baby who is too sleepy and needs to be woken up for feedings may also not be getting enough. Do you have any questions so far? L: No. I’m glad he’s getting enough milk and can’t wait to see if he’s gained weight. T: You mentioned that your nipples are very sore. Have you done anything for the pain? L: I am taking Advil and I was given some Lanolin ointment at the hospital. Do I need to wash it off before I feed the baby? T: No, it is harmless for the baby. The best way to avoid sore nipples is correct positioning at the breast. If you have sore nipples already, I will show you how to have Joshua latch on properly. Meanwhile, for the soreness, you should apply a small amount of your own breast milk on the nipples after each feeding. Then let it air dry as much as possible. After that, you can apply a bit of lanolin. Sometimes it helps to use different feeding positions during the day. L: The nurse at the hospital told me to let my breasts air dry, but that is not easy in the hospital. How often can I use the lanolin? T: You can use it 2-3 times per day. L: Ok. I will try that. T: Your milk has not come it yet, but should come in in the next few days. It usually comes in by the 3rd to 5th day. It is important to feed regularly to encourage your milk production and also to prevent engorgement. Do you know what engorgement is? L: Yes. I was very engorged about a week after Julia was born. T: Engorgement can be very painful and can make it impossible for the baby to latch on properly. (baby wakes up. L gets the baby) L: What should I do if I get engorged? T: Engorgement usually lasts only a few days. Some women just produce more milk than others. If you get engorged, it is important to continue feeding often. You can apply warm compresses and massage your breasts. If it is more severe, you may need to express a bit of milk for relief, which you can do manually or you may need to use a pump. A well-fitted supportive bra may help. L: I have bought a good bra, but haven’t worn it yet. I will send my husband out to buy a pump today. What kind do you recommend? T: It depends on how often you would like to use it. If you are planning to breastfeed all the time, then a manual pump may be enough. There are however, some inexpensive electrical pumps which you can buy for under $40. These may be easier and quicker to use. You can use them to relieve engorgement and to pump if you go out from time to time. L: My friend uses a Safety First pump which is electric. She bought it at Walmart for about $35 and says it works well. T: That’s probably a good choice for you too. Do you have access to the internet? L: Yes T: If you check out the site www.medela.com, you can find information about choosing a pump. If you pump to relieve engorgement, you should only pump for a few minutes. If you pump too much milk, you will only encourage more milk production. L: Thank you, I’ll check the site. Would you like to see how I feed him now? T: Sure. (L puts baby to the breast using cross cradle positioning. The baby does not take enough of the areola so L has pain.) T: He is not on properly. To release the suction, place your finger gently between his gums, like this. In order to get him to latch on well, you first need to make sure that you are comfortable since you will be breastfeeding so often. Use pillows to get yourself comfortable. Take your time and relax before you start. When you are ready, make sure the baby’s nose is facing the nipple. His head should be aligned with his body. Gently stroke his upper lip with your nipple. When he opens his mouth, pull him quickly towards you, so that he can take as much of the areola as possible. L: How do I know if he is taking enough? T: The most important cue is that you will have no pain. Generally the baby’s chin is touching the bottom of the breast, and there is a small space between his nose and your breast. Hold your baby close to you and support his head. There is no normal or standard way to breastfeed. If the baby is feeding well and you have no pain, it is working well. L: I don’t feel any pain now. T: Can you hear him swallow? L: Yes. T: Excellent. Then you are doing it very well. Notice how his body is aligned with his head, he is most comfortable that way. Look at his chin and his nose. See how they are positioned. You can see that he has opened his mouth very wide and is taking enough of the breast. Would you like me to show you how to hold him in some other positions? L: Yes. I would like to learn how to lie down to feed. It would be so much easier at night. T: That’s true. When you’re very tired, it’s a lot easier. The basics are the same. You want to ensure that the baby is facing you and that his body is aligned with his head. Make yourself comfortable. Use a pillow behind your back or between your knees if you need one. (L Demonstrates the technique.) T: That is very good. Are you comfortable? L: Yes, very. And no pain! T: Breastfeeding is not always as easy as some people make it seem. It takes practice. The beginning is a learning process for you and for the baby. Let me show you one more position that you may like to use. This is the football hold. It is easier to use when the baby is small like Joshua; but is sometimes more difficult later on. Hold him so that his legs and body are under your arm, like this. Then place your hand under his head and neck. If you’ve ever played football, that’s how a football is held. L: I don’t like that one. It is much easier the other way. T: Not everybody likes that position. You have to do what’s best for you and for your baby so use the position that’s most comfortable. (Baby weighed – lost 8.5% of birth weight) T: He lost a bit more weight. But that’s normal. Most breastfed babies lose 10% or more of their birth weight in the first few days. They usually regain their birth weight within 10 days. Do you remember how to tell if he is drinking enough? L: Yes. He should have at least 6 wet diapers every day after the 6th day and a couple of stools. He should also wake up alone to feed and sleep well between feedings. And of course, he should gain weight. T: Exactly. T: I will be returning to weigh Joshua again Wednesday (in 48 hrs). I will continue to follow him until he starts to gain some weight. If you need help before then, you can call the CLSC (community clinic) at the number I gave you earlier. As I told you earlier, there is a breastfeeding clinic every Thursday morning as well. At the clinics, there are nurses available to weight the baby and to help you more with breastfeeding. Here is some information on breastfeeding that we discussed today (pamphlets on latching, sore nipples and engorgement given). If you have any questions about them, let me know. Evaluation of learner: I always do a telephone follow-up within 1-3 days. This is very effective as the client will have had some time to process all the information (London, p.62). If necessary, a repeat visit will also be planned. Unfortunately I cannot always have the client do three separate demonstrations (London, p. 386) due to budget and time constraints. Discussion worked best with the subject in this paper. She was educated and was eager to learn proper techniques. She had self-efficacy, skills and knowledge – all important factors if changing behaviors (Rankin, p 292). She was alert and very interested in learning. She participated in the discussion. She was able to apply the information immediately during my visit. At the follow-up visit 2 days later, the client was doing very well. She was able to breastfeed without any pain or difficulty. We discussed engorgement again, a problem which had developed since my first visit. She explained what she had done to relieve the engorgement, which was how I had explained it to her. The â€Å"what if† scenario had worked .(London p.386) Evaluation of teacher: I could have done more assessment of the learner while I was teaching. I find myself being drawn into a routine with my teaching that is sometimes hard to get out of. Most of the teaching is very repetitive from one client to the next, however, each client learns in her own fashion. I try to keep the client interested in what I have to say. I encourage her and give her positive feedback. Sometimes I forget the goals of the session and get off track, or provide the client with unnecessary information. I find that using a checklist helps me to stay on the right track and to not omit anything important. Evaluation of resources: The handouts I usually give out to my clients on latching, engorgement and sore nipples, all score over 70% by the SAM test (Rankin, p.238), thus making them good resources. I provide this information to my clients to use as the situations arise. Although I explain the handouts to all my clients, not all women get engorged; for those that do, it usually happens after my visit. Having the handouts at home allows them to refer to the information as a reference when they need it most. Conclusion: The teaching session went very well. The client was intelligent, educated and eager to learn. Overall this teaching technique used for teaching breastfeeding works well with most of the clientà ¨le I see at home. Every person is unique and adjustments always need to be made accordingly. Bibliography: Forrest, S. (2004). Learning and teaching: The reciprocal link. The Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 35(2), 74-79. London, F. (1999). No time to teach? A nurse’s guide to patient and family education. New York: Lippincott. Medela (2007) Your Resource for breastfeeding products and information. [on-line]. Available: http://www.medela.com. Rankin, S.H., Stallings, K.D., & London, F. (2005). Patient education in health and illness (5th ed.). New York: Lippincott.